Allen, K. L., Molan P.C. & Reid G.M. (1991). "A survey of the antibacterial activity of some New Zealand honeys." Journal Of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 43(12), 817-822.

Abstract. To assess the variation in antibacterial activity of honey a survey was carried out on 345 samples of unpasteurized honey obtained from commercial apiarists throughout New Zealand.

Most of the honeys were considered to be monofloral, from 26 different floral sources. The honeys were tested against Staphylococcus aureus in an agar well diffusion assay, with reference to phenol as a standard. Antibacterial activity was found to range from the equivalent of less than 2% (w/v) phenol to 58% (w/v) phenol, with a median of 13.6 and a standard deviation of 12.5.

Neither the age of the honey samples nor whether they had been processed by the apiarist was associated with lower activity. However, the difference between floral sources in the antibacterial activity was very highly significant. Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides (A. Rich.) J. Thompson. Family: Myrtaceae), manuka (Leptospermum scoparium J. R. et G. Forst. Family: Myrtaceae), ling heather (Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull. Family: Ericaceae) and kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa Linn. f. Family: Cunoniaceae) were shown to be sources likely to give honey with high antibacterial activity. When antibacterial activity was assayed with catalase added to remove hydrogen peroxide, most of the honeys showed no detectable antibacterial activity.

Only manuka and vipers bugloss (Echium vulgare L. Family: Boraginaceae) honeys showed this type of activity in a significant proportion of the samples. The high antibacterial activity of manuka honey was in many cases due entirely to this non-peroxide component.

Betts, J.A. & Molan, P.C. (2002) "Results of a pilot trial of manuka honey as a dressing for infected chronic wounds." - a paper presented at the 4th Australian Wound Management Association Conference, Adelaide, Australia.

Bignall J. (2003) "Honey & Heliobacter" The Lancet  342(8875), 858.

Brady N.F., Molan P.C. & Harfoot C.G. (1996) "The Sensitivity of Dermatophytes to the Anti-Microbial Activity of Manuka Honey & Other Honey." Pharm. Sciences 2(10), 471-473.

Abstract. Honey has been reported to have anti-fungal activity and so was tested against clinical isolates of the common dermatophyte species which cause tineas in man. A honey with an average level of hydrogen peroxide and a manuka (Leptospermum scoparium J.R. & G. Forst, Fam. Myrtaceae) honey with an average level of non-peroxide antibacterial activity were used. An agar well diffusion assay was used, the contents of the wells being replaced with freshly prepared honey solutions at 24h intervals over 3-4 days of incubation.

The lowest concentrations (% v/v, in steps of 5%) of manuka honey with catalase added to remove hydrogen peroxide, and of the other honey (without catalase) showed that the inhibition of growth around the walls were, repectively Epidermophyton floccosum 25%,10%, Microsporum canis 25%,15%, Microsporum gypseum 55%, 20%, Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. interdigitale 45%, 15%, Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. mentagrophytes 25%,15%, Trichophyton rubrum 20%, 5%, Trichophyton tonsurans 25%, 20%.

No inhibitory activity was detected with the other honey at 50% (v/v) with catalase added. 

The results of this investigation show that the common dermatophytes are sensitive to the antimicrobial activity of honey, indicating that clinical evaluation of honey in the treatment of tineas is warranted. This would determine whether the hydrogen peroxide or the non-peroxide antifungal agent diffuses better into the skin.

Casey G. & van Rij A. (1997) "Manuka honey & leg ulcers." New Zealand Med. J. 110(1045), 216.

Chambers J. (2006). "Topical manuka for MRSA-contaminated skin ulcers." Palliat Med. 20(5), 557.  

Cooper R.A. & Molan P.C. (1999). "The use of honey as an antiseptic in managing Pseudomonas infection." J. Wound Care 8(4), 161-164.

Abstract. A laboratory study was undertaken to extend existing knowledge about the effectiveness of the antibacterial properties of honey against pseudomonads. To date, sensitivity testing has used non-standardised honeys, which may vary greatly in their antibacterial potency.

Pure cultures of Pseudomonas spp, isolated from swabs from 20 infected wounds, were inoculated on the surface of nutrient agar plates containing various concentrations of honey in the medium. Two types of honey were used, a manuka honey and a pasture honey, each selected to have antibacterial activity close to the median for each type.

The minimum inhibitory concentration of the manuka honey for the 20 isolates ranged from 5.5-8.7% (v/v) (mean 6.9% (v/v), standard deviation 1.3). The minimum inhibitory concentration of the pasture honey for the 20 isolates ranged from 5.8-9.0% (v/v) (mean 7.1% (v/v), standard deviation 1.0).

Honeys with an average level of antibacterial activity could be expected to be effective in preventing the growth of pseudomonads on the surface of a wound even if the honey were diluted more than ten-fold by exudation from the wound.

Cooper R.A. Molan P.C. & Harding K.G. (1999). "Anti-bacterial activity of honey against strains of Staphylococcus aureus from infected wounds." J. R. Soc. Med. 92(6), 283-285.  

Abstract. The antibacterial action of honey in infected wounds does not depend wholly on its high osmolarity.

We tested the sensitivity of 58 strains of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus, isolated from infected wounds, to a pasture honey and a manuka honey. There was little variation between the isolates in their sensitivity to honey: minimum inhibitory concentrations were all between 2 and 3% (v/v) for the manuka honey and between 3 and 4% for the pasture honey. Thus, these honeys would prevent growth of S. aureus if diluted by body fluids a further seven-fold to fourteen-fold beyond the point where their osmolarity ceased to be completely inhibitory.

The antibacterial action of the pasture honey relied on release of hydrogen peroxide, which in vivo might be reduced by catalase activity in tissues or blood. The action of manuka honey stems partly from a phytochemical component, so this type of honey might be more effective in vivo. Comparative clinical trials with standardized honeys are needed.

Cooper R.A., Molan P.C., Krishnamoorthy L. & Harding K.G. (2001) "Manuka honey used to heal a recalcitrant surgical wound." Eur J. Clin. Micobiol Infect Dis. 20(10), 758-9.

Cooper R.A. Molan P.C. & Harding K.G. (2002) "The `sensitivity to honey of Gram-positive cocci of clinical significance isolated from wounds." J. Applied Microbiol 93(5), 857-63.

Abstract. AIMS: To determine the sensitivity to honey of Gram-positive cocci of clinical significance in wounds and demonstrate that inhibition is not exclusively due to osmotic effects.

METHODS AND RESULTS: Eighteen strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and seven strains of vancomycin-sensitive enterococci were isolated from infected wounds and 20 strains of vancomycin-resistant enterococci were isolated from hospital environmental surfaces. Using an agar incorporation technique to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), their sensitivity to two natural honeys of median levels of antibacterial activity was established and compared with an artificial honey solution. For all of the strains tested, the MIC values against manuka and pasture honey were below 10% (v/v), but concentrations of artificial honey at least three times higher were required to achieve equivalent inhibition in vitro. Comparison of the MIC values of antibiotic-sensitive strains with their respective antibiotic-resistant strains demonstrated no marked differences in their susceptibilities to honey.

CONCLUSIONS: The inhibition of bacteria by honey is not exclusively due to osmolarity. For the Gram-positive cocci tested, antibiotic-sensitive and -resistant strains showed similar sensitivity to honey.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: A possible role for honey in the treatment of wounds colonized by antibiotic-resistant bacteria is indicated.

Cooper R.A., Halas E. & Molan P.C. (2002) "The efficacy of honey in inhibiting strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from infected burns." J. Burn Care Rehab. 23(6), 366-370.

Abstract. Because there is no ideal therapy for burns infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa there is sufficient need to investigate the efficiency of alternative antipseudomonal interventions.

Honey is an ancient wound remedy for which there is modern evidence of efficacy in the treatment of burn wounds, but limited evidence for the effectiveness of its antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas. We tested the sensitivity of 17 strains of P. aeruginosa isolated from infected burns to two honeys with different types of antibacterial activity, a pasture honey and a manuka honey, both with median levels of activity.

All strains showed similar sensitivity to honey with minimum inhibitory concentrations below 10% (vol/vol) both honeys maintained bactericidal activity when diluted more than 10-fold.

Honey with proven antibacterial activity has the potential to be an effective treatment option for burns infected or at risk of infection with P. aeruginosa.

Dixon B. (2003) "Bacteria can't resist honey." The Lancet Infectious Diseases 3(2), 116. 

English H.K., Pack A.R. & Molan PC. (2004). "The effects of manuka honey on plaque & gingivitis: a pilot study." J. Int. Acad. Peridontol. 6(2), 63-67.

Abstract: Research has shown that manuka honey has superior antimicrobial properties that can be used with success in the treatment of wound healing, peptic ulcers and bacterial gastro-enteritis.Studies have already shown that manuka honey with a high antibacterial activity is likely to be non-cariogenic.

The current pilot study investigated whether or not manuka honey with an antibacterial activity rated UMF 15 could be used to reduce dental plaque and clinical levels of gingivitis. A chewable "honey leather" was produced for this trial. Thirty volunteers were randomly allocated to chew or suck either the manuka honey product, or sugarless chewing gum, for 10 minutes, three times a day, after each meal. Plaque and gingival bleeding scores were recorded before and after the 21-day trial period.

Analysis of the results indicated that there were statistically highly significant reductions in the mean plaque scores (0.99 reduced to 0.65; p=0.001), and the percentage of bleeding sites (48% reduced to 17%; p=0.001), in the manuka honey group, with no significant changes in the control group. Conclusion:

These results suggest that there may be a potential therapeutic role for manuka honey confectionery in the treatment of gingivitis and periodontal disease.

French V.M. Cooper R.A. & Molan P.C. (2005) "The anti-bacterial action of honey against coagulase-negative Staphylococci." J. Antimicrob. Biochem. 56(1), 228-231.

Abstract. OBJECTIVES: Development of anti-biotic resistant strains of coagulase-negative Staphylococci has complicated the management of infections associated with the use of invasive medical devices, and innovative treatment and prophylactic options are needed.

Honey is increasingly being used to treat infected wounds, but little is known about its effectiveness against coagulase-negative Staphylococci.  The aim of this study was to determine the minimum active dilution of two standardised representative honeys for 18 clinical isolates of coagulase-negative Staphylococci.

METHODS:  An agar incorporation technique was used to determine the minimum active dilution, with dilution steps of 1% (v/v) [or steps of 5%v/v of a sugar syrup matching the osmotic effects of honey]. The plates were inoculated with 10 microl. spots of cultures of the isolates.

RESULTS: The honeys were inhibitory at dilutions down to 3.6 +/- 0.7% (v/v) for the pasture honey, 3.4 +/- 0.5% (v/v) for the manuka honey, and 29.9 +/- 1.9 for the sugar syrup.

CONCLUSIONS: Typical honeys are about eight times more potent against coagulase-negative Staphylococci than if bacterial inhibition was due to their osmolarity alone. Therefore, honey applied to the skin at the insertion points of medical devices may have a role in the treatment or prevention of infections by coagulase-negative Staphylococci. 

Gethin G. & Cowman S. (2005) "Case series of use of Manuka honey in leg ulceration." Int. Wound. J. 2(1), 10-15.

Abstract. The historical and current literature reports the successful use of honey to manage a diversity of wound aetiologies. However, only in the last 40 years is research on its mode of action and contribution to wound healing being investigated. The challenge of managing chronic non healing wounds generated interest in researching non standard therapies.

The aims of the study were to gain insight into the practical use of Manuka honey in wound management. The objective was to test the feasibility of further rigorous research into the use of honey in the management of chronic wounds. Instrumental case series were used to examine the use of Manuka honey in eight cases of leg ulceration. To collect the necessary data, photographs, acetate tracings, data monitoring and patient comments and observations were used to add greater reliability and validity to the findings. The wounds were dressed weekly with Manuka honey.

The results obtained showed three males and five females with ulceration of different aetiologies were studied. A mean initial wound size for all wounds of 5.62 cm(2) was obtained. At the end of four-week treatment period, the mean size was 2.25 cm(2). Odour was eliminated and pain reduced.

The conclusions drawn were that the use of Manuka honey was associated with a positive wound-healing outcome in these eight cases. Arterial wounds showed minimal improvement only.

Henriques A, Jackson S, Cooper R, Burton N. (2006) "Free radical production and quenching in honeys with wound healing potential." J Antimicrob Chemother. 58(4), 773-7

Abstract. OBJECTIVES: Honey-impregnated wound dressings are now available on drug tariff in the UK, though the modes of action of honeys with antibacterial and wound healing properties are not entirely clear. The action of some but not all of these honeys is linked to the production of hydrogen peroxide on dilution of the honey with wound exudate. The present study investigates both free radical production and the antioxidant potential of some honeys, properties which may have a role to play in wound healing.

METHODS: Free radical production and quenching of three honey types (manuka, antibacterial but non-peroxide-producing; pasture, antibacterial peroxide-producing; commercial heat processed, non-antibacterial) was investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy; quenching was also examined using a superoxide quenching assay.

RESULTS: All honeys tested had antioxidant potential, with manuka able to completely quench added radicals within 5 min of spiking. Only the peroxide-producing honey (pasture PS9) was found to form radicals on dilution.

CONCLUSIONS: The ability to modulate production and quenching of free radicals may contribute to the demonstrated ability of some honeys to help in resolving the state of inflammation typifying chronic wounds.

Lusby P.E. Coombes A. & Wilkinson J.M. (2002) "Honey: a potent agent for wound healing?" J. Wound Ostomy Continence Nurs. 29(6), 273-274.

Abstract.  Although honey has been used as a traditional remedy for burns and wounds, the potential for its inclusion in mainstream medical care is not well recognized.

Many studies have demonstrated that honey has antibacterial activity in vitro, and a small number of clinical case studies have shown that application of honey to severely infected cutaneous wounds is capable of clearing infection from the wound and improving tissue healing. The physicochemical properties (e.g. osmotic effects and pH) of honey also aid in its antibacterial actions.

Research has also indicated that honey may possess anti-inflammatory activity and stimulate immune responses within a wound. The overall effect is to reduce infection and to enhance wound healing in burns, ulcers, and other cutaneous wounds. It is also known that honeys derived from particular floral sources in Australia and New Zealand (Leptospermum spp.) have enhanced antibacterial activity, and these honeys have been approved for marketing as therapeutic honeys (Medihoney and Active Manuka honey).

This review outlines what is known about the medical properties of honey and indicates the potential for honey to be incorporated into the management of a large number of wound types.

Lusby P.E., Coombes A.L. & Wilkinson J.M. (2005). "Bacterial activity of different honeys against pathogenic bacteria." Arch. Med. Res. 36(5), 464-467.

Abstract. Renewed interest in honey for various therapeutic purposes including treatment of infected wounds has led to the search for new antibacterial honeys. In this study we have assessed the antibacterial activity of three locally produced honeys and compared them to three commercial therapeutic honeys (including Medihoney and manuka honey).

METHODS: An agar dilution method was used to assess the activity of honeys against 13 bacteria and one yeast. The honeys were tested at five concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 20%.

RESULTS: Twelve of the 13 bacteria were inhibited by all honeys used in this study with only Serratia marcescens and the yeast Candida albicans not inhibited by the honeys. Little or no antibacterial activity was seen at honey concentrations <1%, with minimal inhibition at 5%. No honey was able to produce complete inhibition of bacterial growth. Although Medihoney and manuka had the overall best activity, the locally produced honeys had equivalent inhibitory activity for some, but not all, bacteria.

CONCLUSIONS: Honeys other than those commercially available as antibacterial honeys can have equivalent antibacterial activity. These newly identified antibacterial honeys may prove to be a valuable source of future therapeutic honeys.

Malone M.A., Gatehouse H.S. & Treqidqa E.L. (2001) "Effects of time, temperature & honey on Nosema apis (Microsporidia: Nosematidae), a parasite of the honeybee Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae)." J. Invertebrate Pathol 77(4), 258-68.

Abstract. Newly emerged adult bees were fed with Nosema apis spores subjected to various treatments, and their longevity, proportions of bees infected, and spores per bee recorded. Spores lost viability after 1, 3, or 6 months in active manuka or multifloral honey, after 3 days in multifloral honey, and after 21 days in water or sugar syrup at 33 degrees C. Air-dried spores lost viability after 3 or 5 days at 40 degrees, 45 degrees, or 49 degrees C. Increasing numbers of bees became infected with increasing doses of spores, regardless of their subsequent food (active manuka honey, thyme honey, or sugar syrup). Final spore loads were similar among bees receiving the same food, regardless of dose. Bees fed with either honey had lighter infections than those fed with syrup, but this may have been due to reductions in their longevity. Bees fed with manuka honey were significantly shorter lived, whether infected or not.

McGovern D.P., Abbas S.Z., Vivian G. & Dalton H.R. (1999) "Manuka honey against Heliobacter pyroli." J.R. Soc. Med. 92(8), 439.

McIntosh C.D. & Thomson C.E. (2006) "Honey dressing vs. paraffin tulle gras after toe nail surgery." J. Wound Care 15(3), 133-136.  

Abstract.

OBJECTIVE: Anecdotal reports suggest that certain honey dressings have a positive effect on wound healing. However there is  limited empirical evidence supporting its use.  This double-blind randomised controlled trial investigated the effect of a honey dressing on a wound healing following toenail surgery with matrix phenolisation.

METHOD: Participants (n=100) were randomly assigned to receive either an active manuka honey dressing (n=52) or paraffin-impregnated tulle gras (n=48). The primary outcome was time (days) taken for complete re-epithelisation of the nail bed.

RESULTS: Mean healing times were 40.30 days (SD 18.21) for the honey group and 39.98 days (SD 25.42) for the paraffin tulle gras group. Partial avulsion wounds healed statistically significantly faster (p=0.01) with paraffin tulle gras (19.62 days, SD 9.31) than with the honey dressing (31.76 days, SD 18.8) but no significant difference (p=0.21) was found following total avulsion when comparing honey (45.28 days, SD 18.03) with paraffin tull gras dressings (52.03 days, SD 21.3.

CONCLUSION: The results suggest that patients may benefit more from paraffin tulle gras dressings than the honey dressings following partial toenail avulsion. No statistically significant difference was found for healing times after total toenail avulsion., although marginal benefits of the honey dressing on these healing times warrants further investigation.

Moar N.T. (1985) "Pollen analysis of New Zealand honey". New Zealand J of Agric Res. 28(1), 39-70.

Molan P.C., Allen, K. L., Tan, S. T. & Wilkins, A. L. (1989) "Identification of components responsible for the antibacterial activity of Manuka and Viper's Bugloss honeys" paper presented at the Annual Conference of the New Zealand Institute of Chemistry.

Molan P.C. & Allen K.L. (1996) "The effect of gamma-irradiation on the antibacterial activity of honey." J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 48(11), 1206-1209.

Abstract. There is increasing usage of honey as a dressing on infected wounds, burns and ulcers, but there is some concern that there may be a risk of wound botulism from the clostridial spores sometimes found in honey. It is well-established that the antibacterial activity is heat-labile so would be destroyed if honey were sterilized by autoclaving, but the effect of gamma-irradiation on the antibacterial activity of honey is not known.

Therefore an investigation was carried out to assess the effect on the antibacterial activity of honey when the honey was subjected to a commercial sterilization procedure using gamma-irradiation (25 kGy). Two honeys with antibacterial activity due to enzymically-generated hydrogen peroxide and three manuka honeys with non-peroxide antibacterial activity were investigated. The honeys were tested against Staphylococcus aureus in an agar well diffusion assay.

There was no significant change found in either type of antibacterial activity resulting from this form of sterilization of honey, even when the radiation was doubled (to 50 kGy). Testing of honey seeded with spores of Clostridium perfringens and C. tetani (10000 and 1000 spores g-1 of honey, respectively) showed that 25 kGy of gamma-irradiation was sufficient to achieve sterility.

Molan P.C. (1999) "The unique properties of manuka honey" Bee Informed (The Journal of the American Apitherapy Society) 6 (1): 5-6.

Natajaran S, Williamson D., Grey J., Harding K.G. & Cooper R.A. (2001) "Healing of an MRSA-colonized, hydroxyurea-induced leg ulcer with honey." J. Dermatol. Treat. 12(1), 33-36.

Abstract. BACKGROUND: With the ever increasing emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens, in particular methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in leg ulcers, a means of reducing the bacterial bioburden of such ulcers, other than by the use of either topical or systemic antibiotics, is urgently required.

METHODS: We report the case of an immunosuppressed patient who developed a hydroxyurea-induced leg ulcer with subclinical MRSA infection which was subsequently treated with topical application of manuka honey, without cessation of hydroxyurea or cyclosporin.

RESULTS: MRSA was eradicated from the ulcer and rapid healing was successfully achieved.

CONCLUSION: Honey is recognized to have antibacterial properties, and can also promote effective wound healing. A traditional therapy, therefore, appears to have enormous potential in solving new problems.

Patton T., Barret J., Brennan J. & Moran N. (2005). "Use of a spectrophotometric assay for determination of microbial sensitivity to manuka honey." J. Microbiol Methods 64(1), 84-95. Abstract. The antimicrobial activity of manuka honey has been well documented

Molan, 1992a,b,c, (1997) Molan, P.C. (1992). "The antibacterial activity of honey. 1: the nature of the antibacterial activity." Bee World 73 (1) 5-28;

Molan, P.C. (1992). "The antibacterial activity of honey. 2: variation in the potency of the antibacterial activity." Bee World  73(2) 59-76;

Molan, P.C. (1992). "Medicinal uses for honey." Beekeepers Quarterly 26;

Molan, P.C. (1997). "Finding New Zealand honeys with outstanding antibacterial and antifungal activity." New Zealand Beekeeper 4(10) 20-26]. The current bioassays for determining this antimicrobial effect employ a well diffusion (Ahn & Stiles, 1990)

Ahn, C. & Stiles, M.E. (1990). "Antibacterial activity of lactic acid bacteria isolated from vacuum-packed meats." Journal of Applied Bacteriology 69, 302-310], (Weston et al., 1999) [Weston, R.J., Mitchell, K.R., Allen, K.L., 1999. "Antibacterial phenolic components of New Zealand manuka honey." J. Food Chem. 64, 295-301] or disc diffusion (Taormina et al., 2001)

Taormina, P. J., Niemira B.A. & Beuchat L.R. (2001). "Inhibitory activity of honey against food borne pathogens as influenced by the presence of hydrogen peroxide and level of antioxidant power."  Int. J. Food Microbiol. 69, 217-225]

Assay using zones of inhibition as indicators of bacterial susceptibility. The development of a 24-h spectrophotometric assay employing 96-well microtiter plates, that is more sensitive and more amenable to statistical analysis than the assays currently employed, was undertaken. This simple and rapid assay permits extensive kinetic studies even in the presence of low honey concentrations, and is capable of detecting inhibitory levels below those recorded for well or disc diffusion assays. In this paper, we compare the assay to both well and disc diffusion assays.

The results we obtained for the spectrophotometric method MIC values show that this method has greater sensitivity than the standard well and disc diffusion assays. In addition, inter- and intra-assay variance for this method was investigated, demonstrating the methods reproducibility and repeatability.

Price S.B. (M.Sc.) "Isolation of antibacterial components from manuka honey." (Thesis, 1991).

Russell K.M., Molan P.C. & Wilkins A.L. (1990) "Identification of some antibacterial constituents of New Zealand manuka honey." J. Agric. Food Chem. 34, 10-13.

Abstract: Some components responsible for the exceptionally high antibacterial activity of manuka honey were isolated by testing fractions of the honey for activity against Staphylococcus aureus. An ethanol-ether extract of the honey was separated by preparative-layer chromatography and the fractions thus obtained were assessed for anti-bacterial effects.

One fairly homogenous fraction was identified as methyl 3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxybenzoate (methyl syringate). Combined gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy indicated the presence of this compound in some of the other antibacterial fractions together with methyl 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoate and 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoic acid. Authentic specimens of 3,5-dimethoxybenzoic acid (syringic acid) and 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoic acid and their methyl esters were tested against S. aureus. The acids and to a lesser extent, methyl syringate were found to possess significant anti-bacterial activity.

Sealey D.F (M.Sc.) Chromatographic investigations of the antibacterial activity in manuka honey. (Thesis 1988)

 

al Somal N., Coley K.E., Molan P.C. & Hancock B.M. (1994) "Susceptibility of Heliobacter pylori to the anti-bacterial activity of manuka honey." J.R. Soc. Med. 87(1), 9-12.

Abstract. Honey is a traditional remedy for dyspepsia, and is still used for this by some medical practitioners although there is no rational basis for its use.

The finding that Helicobacter pylori is probably the causative agent in many cases of dyspepsia has raised the possibility that the therapeutic action of honey may be due to its antibacterial properties. Consequently, the sensitivity of Helicobacter pylori to honey was tested, using isolates from biopsies of gastric ulcers. It was found that all five isolates tested were sensitive to a 20% (v/v) solution of manuka honey in an agar well diffusion assay, but none showed sensitivity to a 40% solution of a honey in which the antibacterial activity was due primarily to its content of hydrogen peroxide.

Assessment of the minimum inhibitory concentration by inclusion of manuka honey in the agar showed that all seven isolates tested had visible growth over the incubation period of 72 h. prevented completely by the presence of 5% (v/v) honey.

Snow M.J. & Manley-Harris M. (2004) "On the nature of non-peroxide antibacterial activity in New Zealand manuka honey." Food Chemistry 84(1), 145-147.

Abstract. Some conclusions, which exist in the literature about the nature of non-peroxide antibacterial activity in manuka honey, have been revisited. The stability of non-peroxide antibacterial activity in manuka honey at basic pH was investigated. At pH 11 antibacterial activity was immediately and irreversibly destroyed.

This indicates that it is not possible to carry out chromatography of honey solutions at elevated pH with the intent to isolate the active fraction. The effect of 10-fold excess of catalase upon the antibacterial assay was examined. No statistical difference in the outcome was observed between the normal amount of catalase and the 10-fold excess.

This indicates that non-peroxide antibacterial activity in manuka honey is not likely to be due to residual hydrogen peroxide.

Snow M.J., Manley-Harris M. & Farr J.M. (2005) "Unique Manuka Factor (UMF) fortified honey" Patent No WO2005120250.

Abstract. The invention relates to UMF amended food stuffs and medicaments. In particular, although not exclusively, the invention relates to UMF fortified honey, methods for the preparation of UMF fortified honey, and methods for the preparation of UMF containing fractions of honey.

Stephen-Haynes J. (2004) "Evaluation of a honey-impregnated tulle dressing in primary care." Br. J. Community Nurs. June 2004 (Suppl), 21-27.

Abstract: Honey has been used for its healing properties for centuries and has been used to dress wounds with favourable results. The emergence of antibiotic resistance and growing interest in "natural" or "complementary" therapies has led to an interest in honey dressings.

Much of the research to date has been related to honey's antibacterial properties. However, the healing properties claimed for honey also include stimulating new tissue growth, moist wound healing, fluid handling and promoting epithelialization.

Until recently, honey had not been developed as a wound management product and was not a certified pharmaceutical device. Activon Tulle is a sterile, non-adherent dressing impregnated with Leptospermum scoparium honey.

The claimed properties of honey dressings would make this a valuable addition to the dressing currently available in the primary care setting. An evaluation was undertaken involving 20 patients with a variety of wounds.

A conclusion is drawn that while further research is needed, medical grade honey does appear to be a valuable addition to the wound management formulary.

Tan S.T., Holland P.T., Wilkins A.L., Molan P.C. (1988) "Extractives from New Zealand honeys. White clover, manuka & manuka unifloral honeys." J. Agric. Food Chem. 36, 453-460.

Abstract. Ether extracts were made from aqueous solutions of manuka (Leptospermum scoparium), kanuka (Leptospermum ericoides), and clover (Trifolium repens) honeys with use of a continuous liquid/liquid extractor. The components of the extracts were methylated before being separated and identified by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, and also by preparative thin-layer chromatography followed by 'H and 13C NMR analyses.

A total of 61 different compounds were detected, and 56 of these were identified. Their concentrations ranged from 0.1 to 4000 pg/g. Classes of compounds detected included hydrocarbons (C21-C33) and straight-chain-monobasic (C8-C23) dibasic, and aromatic acids.

The concentration of aromatic acids in manuka and kanuka honeys was much higher than in clover honey. These acids were not present in a chloroform extract of manuka flowers, which contained many terpenes, none of which were present in manuka honey.

Compounds reported for the first time in honey include 2-decenedioic, decanedioic, nonanedioic, and octanedioic acids.